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When Women Lost the Vote

Part 1

How Did Women Gain the Vote?: The Promise of 1776 for Women

For more on women in colonial America, refer to: Harriet B. Applewhite and Darlene G. Levy, eds. Women and Politics in the Age of the Democratic Revolution (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); Patricia U. Bonomi, The Lord Cornbury Scandal: The Politics of Reputation in British America (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2012); Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America (Oxford University Press, 2003); Jane Kamensky, The Colonial Mosaic: American Women, 1600 – 1760 (Oxford University Press, 1998); Mark E. Kann, The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999); Mary Beth Norton, Separated by Her Sex: Women in Public and Private in the Colonial Atlantic World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2011); Barbara B. Oberg, Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World (University of Virginia Press, 2019); Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, The Age of Homespun: Objects and Stories in the Creation of an American Myth (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001). Queen Charlotte quote cited in Olwen Hedley, Queen Charlotte (John Murray Publishers, 1975), 122. Margaret Fell quote cited in Womens Speaking Justified, Proved and Allowed of by the Scriptures, London, 1666. 

Mobile Image: Liberty and Washington Tavern Shade, 1800 - 1810, Oil on Canvas, Fenimore Art Museum, Cooperstown, N.Y. Gift of Stephen C. Clark. N0535.1948. Photograph by Richard Walker. 

Diverse Women of the Mid-Atlantic

For more on the Colonial and Revolutionary New Jersey refer to: Linda B. Biemer, Women and Property in Colonial New York: The Transition from Dutch to English Law, 1643-1727 (UMI Research Press, 1983); Barbara J, Mitnick, Editor, New Jersey in the American Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Rivergate Books, 2005); Ruth H. Bloch, Gender and Morality in Anglo-American Culture, 1650-1800 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003); Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America (Oxford University Press, 2003); Jean R. Soderland, “Women's Authority in Pennsylvania and New Jersey Quaker Meetings, 1680-1760,” William and Mary Quarterly 44:4 (Oct. 1987): 722-749. For more on women and race in the Revolutionary era refer to: Catherine Adams and Elizabeth Peck, For the Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Jacqueline Jones, “The Mixed Legacy of the American Revolution for Black Women,” In Mary Beth Norton and Ruth M. Alexander, eds., Major Problems in Women’s History: Documents and Essays (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co., 1996), 103-107; Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700 – 1835 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998); Kirsten Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil: Strategic Deceptions in Eighteenth-Century Antislavery,” Journal of American History, 97:2 (September 2010), 315-343; Betty Wood, “Southern Women of Color and the American Revolution.” In S. Jay Kleinberg, Eileen Boris, and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds. The Practice of U.S. Women’s History: Narratives, Intersections, and Dialogues (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 67-82. Quote on the abolition of slavery taken from the Constitution of the Pennsylvania Society For Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage, 1787. 

A Revolution Led By Women: 1765-1775

For more on women’s participation in the nonimportation movement, refer to: Carol Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence (New York: 2005); Joy Day Buel and Richard Buel, The Way of Duty: A Woman and Her Family in Revolutionary America (New York: Norton, 1984); Mary Beth Norton, Liberty’s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750-1800 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1980); Barbara Clark Smith, “Food Rioters and the American Revolution,” The William and Mary Quarterly, 51:1 (January 1994): 3-38. For more on women under femme coverture and of femme sole status, refer to: Patricia Cleary, Elizabeth Murray: A Woman’s Pursuit of Independence in Eighteenth-Century America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000); Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Nancy Cott, “Divorce and the Changing Status of Women in Eighteenth-Century Massachusetts,” The William and Mary Quarterly 33:4 (Oct. 1976): 586-614; Hendrick Hartog, “Abigail Bailey’s Coverture: Law in a Married Woman’s Consciousness.” In Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns, eds., Law in Everyday Life (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 63-108; Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture by the University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Mary Beth Seivens, Stray Wives: Marital Conflict in Early National New England (New York: New York University Press, 2005); Lisa Wilson, Life after Death: Widows in Pennsylvania, 1750-1850 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Karin Wulf, Not All Wives: Women of Colonial Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). Hannah Griffitts quote found in: Karin Wulf, Not All Wives (2005), 41. 

Abigail Adams Speaks for Women’s Rights

For more on the Adams’s correspondence and Abigail Adams, refer to: Jeanne E. Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic: Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, Dolley Madison, and the Creation of an Iconic American Role (New York: New York University Press, 2018); Catherine Allgor, Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000); Elaine Forman Crane, “Abigail Adams, Gender Politics, and "The History of Emily Montague": A Postscript,” The William and Mary Quarterly 64:4 (Oct. 2007): 839-844; Edith Belle Gelles, Editor, Abigail Adams Letters (Library of America, 2016); Woody Holton, Abigail Adams (Atria Books, 2010); Mary-Jo Kline, L. H. Butterfield, and Marc Friedlaender, Eds, The Book of Abigail and John: Selected Letters of the Adams Family, 1762 – 1784 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1975); Sarah M.S. Pearsall, Atlantic Families: Lives and Letters in the Later Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). Abigail and John Adams’s quotes cited in original letters, courtesy of the Massachusetts Historical Society.

The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution: The Revolutionary “They”

For more on the 1776 New Jersey State Constitution and women voters refer to: Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books: New York, 2000); Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis. “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807.” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Jan Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807.” Rutgers Law Review 63:3 (January 2011): 1017-1035; Mary Philbrook, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey Prior to 1807.” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 57 (July 1939): 88; J.R. Pole, “The Reform of Suffrage and Representation in New Jersey: 1774–1844,” PhD Dissertation (Princeton University, 1953); J.R. Pole,“Suffrage Reform and the American Revolution in New Jersey. Proceedings of the New York Historical Society 74 (July 1956): 173-193; Edward Raymond Turner, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey: 1790-1807,” Smith College Studies in History 1 (1916): 165-187; Robert Forest Williams, The New Jersey State Constitution (OUP USA, 1990). 

Women in Wartime

For more on women’s roles and participation in the American Revolution, refer to: Catherine Adams and Elizabeth Peck, For the Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Carol Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence (New York: 2005); Joy Day Buel and Richard Buel, The Way of Duty: A Woman and Her Family in Revolutionary America (New York: Norton, 1984); Jacqueline Jones, “The Mixed Legacy of the American Revolution for Black Women,” In Mary Beth Norton and Ruth M. Alexander, eds., Major Problems in Women’s History: Documents and Essays (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co., 1996), 103-107; Marla Miller, Betsy Ross and the Making of America (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2006); Mary Beth Norton, Liberty’s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750-1800 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1980); Barbara Clark Smith, “Food Rioters and the American Revolution,” The William and Mary Quarterly, 51:1 (January 1994): 3-38; Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812 (Vintage Books, 1991); Betty Wood, “Southern Women of Color and the American Revolution.” In S. Jay Kleinberg, Eileen Boris, and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds. The Practice of U.S. Women’s History: Narratives, Intersections, and Dialogues (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 67-82. For more on female soldiers and camp followers, refer to: Holly A. Mayer, Belonging to the Army Camp Followers and Community During the American Revolution (University of South Carolina Press, 1999); Constance B. Schulz, “Daughters of Liberty: The History of Women in the Revolutionary War Pension Records.” Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration, 16:3 (1984), 139-153; Harry M. Ward, George Washington’s Enforcers: Policing the Continental Army (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006); Alfred F. Young, Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier (New York: Vintage Books, 2004). For more on female laborers and producers, refer to: Joan M. Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986); Robert Smith, Manufacturing Independence: Industrial Innovation in the American Revolution (New York: Westholme Publishing, LLC, 2016). For more on “female politicians,” refer to: Kate Davies, Catharine Macaulay and Mercy Otis Warren: The Revolutionary Atlantic and the Politics of Gender (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); Owen S. Ireland, Sentiments of a British-American Woman: Esther DeBerdt Reed and the American Revolution (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2018); Catherine Kerrison, Claiming the Pen: Women and Intellectual Life in the Early American South (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015); Jeffrey H. Richards, Mercy Otis Warren (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995); Sheila L Skemp, First Lady of Letters: Judith Sargent Murray and the Struggle for Female Independence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Rosemarie Zagarri, A Woman’s Dilemma: Mercy Otis Warren and the American Revolution (Malden: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015); Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). Esther Reed quote taken from Sentiments of An American Woman, 1780. For more on Elizabeth Freeman, refer to: Emilie Piper and David Levinson, One Minute a Free Woman: Elizabeth Freeman and the Struggle for Freedom (Upper Housatonic Valley National Heritage Area, 2010); Mary Wilds, Mumbet: The Life and Times of Elizabeth Freeman: The True Story of a Slave who Won Her Freedom (Avvison Press, 1999). For more on women, property confiscation, and loyalism in the American Revolution refer to: Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic (1980); Maya A. Jasanoff, Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Vintage Books, 2012); Barbara B. Oberg, Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World (University of Virginia Press, 2019). 

Part 2

How Did the Vote Expand?: New Jersey’s Revolutionary Decade

For more on women and free people of color voting in early New Jersey, refer to: Irwin N. Gertzog, “Female Suffrage in New Jersey, 1790-1807.” Women & Politics 11 (April 1990): 47-58; Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books: New York, 2000); Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis. “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807.” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Jan Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807.” Rutgers Law Review 63:3 (January 2011): 1017-1035; Neil McGoldrick and Margaret Crocco, Reclaiming Lost Ground: The Struggle For Woman Suffrage in New Jersey (Trenton: New Jersey Council for the Humanities, 1994): 2-5; Mary Philbrook, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey Prior to 1807.” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 57 (July 1939): 88; J.R. Pole, “The Reform of Suffrage and Representation in New Jersey: 1774–1844,” PhD Dissertation (Princeton University, 1953); J.R. Pole,“Suffrage Reform and the American Revolution in New Jersey. Proceedings of the New York Historical Society 74 (July 1956): 173-193; Henry C. Shinn, “An Early New Jersey Poll List,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 44:1 (1920): 77-81; Edward Raymond Turner, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey: 1790-1807,” Smith College Studies in History 1 (1916): 165-187; Robert Forest Williams, The New Jersey State Constitution (OUP USA, 1990); William A. Whitehead, “A Brief Statement of the Facts Connected with the Origin, Practice, and Prohibition of Female Suffrage in New Jersey,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 8 (1858): 102; Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). 

1790: Revolutionary “She” and 1797: Loosening the Property Requirement 

For more on the 1790 and 1797 statutes and township voting in New Jersey, refer to: Robert Forest, The New Jersey State Constitution (OUP USA, 1990); Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Jan Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807.” Rutgers Law Review 63:3 (January 2011): 1017-1035; J.R. Pole, “Suffrage Reform and the American Revolution in New Jersey,” Proceedings of the New York Historical Society 74 (July 1956): 173-193; J.R. Pole, “The Reform of Suffrage and Representation in New Jersey: 1774–1844,” PhD Dissertation (Princeton University, 1953); Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). Also see Section 2.0: Was New Jersey “Exceptional?”: New Jersey Women Voters. For more on the 1797 election in Elizabethtown, refer to: Klinghoffer and Elkis, “The Petticoat Electors,” 175-178. For more on the Naturalization Acts and New Jersey, refer to: Terri Diane Halperin, The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: Testing the Constitution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2016); J.R. Pole, “Jeffersonian Democracy and the Federalist Dilemma in New Jersey, 1798–1812,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Association 74 (1956): 260–92; Carl A. Prince, New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1967). 

Who Could Vote?

Ben Franklin cited in: Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books: New York, 2000), 3. For more on who could vote and township and taxpayer voting in New Jersey, refer to: J.R. Pole, “The Reform of Suffrage and Representation in New Jersey: 1774–1844,” PhD Dissertation (Princeton University, 1953); Donald Ratcliffe, The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787—1828,” Journal of the Early Republic 33:2 (Summer 2013): 219-254. For more on women and property ownership in Early America, refer to: Catherine Adams and Elizabeth Peck, For the Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Linda B. Biemer, Women and Property in Colonial New York: The Transition from Dutch to English Law, 1643-1727 (UMI Research Press, 1983); Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Lauren Duval, “Mastering Charleston: Property and Patriarchy in British-Occupied Charleston, 1780-1782,” William and Mary Quarterly, 75:4 (October 2018): 589-622; Gunlo Fur, A Nation of Women: Gender and Colonial Encounters among the Delaware Indians (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Jane Kamensky, The Colonial Mosaic: American Women, 1600 – 1760 (Oxford University Press, 1998); Linda K. Kerber, No Constitutional Right to be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999); Mary Beth Norton, Founding Mothers & Fathers: Gendered Power and the Forming of American Society (New York: Vintage, 1997); Marie Jenkins Schwartz, Ties That Bound: Founding First Ladies and Slaves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017); Mary Beth Seivens, Stray Wives: Marital Conflict in Early National New England (New York: New York University Press, 2005); Linda L. Sturtz, Within Her Power: Propertied Women in Colonial Virginia (New York: Routledge, 2002); Lisa Wilson, Life after Death: Widows in Pennsylvania, 1750-1850 (American Civilization series) (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Karin Wulf, Not All Wives: Women of Colonial Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). Alexander Hamilton quote cited in Alexander Hamilton, The Farmer Refuted, or A more impartial and comprehensive View of the Dispute between Great-Britain and the Colonies. . . . (New York, 1775), in Harold C. Syrett, ed., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961-1979): 81-165.

Founding “Feminists”

For more on women’s rights and women’s activism in the Early Republic, refer to: Jeanne E. Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic: Martha Washington, Abigail Adams, Dolley Madison, and the Creation of an Iconic American Role (New York: New York University Press, 2018); Catherine Allgor, Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000); Harriet B. Applewhite and Darlene G. Levy, eds. Women and Politics in the Age of the Democratic Revolution (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920,” American Historical Review 89:3 (June 1984): 620-647; Phillip Barnard, Mark L. Kamrath, and Stephen Shapiro, Eds, Revising Charles Brockden Brown

Culture, Politics, and Sexuality in the Early Republic (University of Tennessee Press, 2004); Ruth H. Bloch, Gender and Morality in Anglo-American Culture, 1650-1800 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003); Susan Branson, These Fiery Frenchified Dames: Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); Andrew Clayton, Love in the Time of the Revolution: Transatlantic Literary Radicalism and Historical Change, 1793–1818 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Nancy Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: “Woman’s Sphere” in New England, 1780-1835 (Yale University Press, 1977); Cathy N. Davidson, The Revolution and the Word: The Rise of the Novel in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Carolyn Eastman, A Nation of Speechifiers: Making an American Public after the Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture by the University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Catherine Kerrison, Claiming the Pen: Women and Intellectual Life in the Early American South (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015); Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Lucia McMahon, Mere Equals: The Paradox of Educated Women in the Early Republic (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012); Lisa L. Moore, Transatlantic Feminisms in the Age of Revolutions (OUP USA, 2012); Marion Rust, Prodigal Daughters: Susanna Rowson’s Early American Women (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2008); Sheila L.Skemp, First Lady of Letters: Judith Sargent Murray and the Struggle for Female Independence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). For more on Annis Boudinot Stockton’s writing, refer to: Carla J. Mulford, Ed., Only For the Eye of a Friend: The Poems of Annis Boudinot Stockton (University Press of Virginia, 1995). For more on Quaker women in the 18th century Mid-Atlantic, refer to: Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America (Oxford University Press, 2003); Elaine Forman Crane, The Diary of Elizabeth Drinker: The Life Cycle of an Eighteenth-Century Woman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010); Jean R. Soderland, “Women's Authority in Pennsylvania and New Jersey Quaker Meetings, 1680-1760,” The William and Mary Quarterly 44:4 (Oct. 1987): 722-749; Karin Wulf, Not All Wives: Women of Colonial Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). Elias Boudinot quote cited from Elias Boudinot, “An Oration,” delivered at Elizabeth Town, New Jersey, July 4, 1793 (Special Collections Department, Rutgers University Library, New Brunswick, New Jersey). Susan V. Boudinot Bradford quote cited in: Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 174. Annis Boudinot quote cited in: Lisa L. Moore, Transatlantic Feminisms in the Age of Revolutions (OUP USA, 2012), 288-289. John Adams quote on Nelly Parke Custis cited in: Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 46, fn1. Abigail Adams quote on women voting in New Jersey from letter manuscript, courtesy of the American Antiquarian Society. Susanna Rowson quote cited in her play, Slaves in Algiers (1794).

Discovering the Nation’s First Women Voters 

For more on early New Jersey poll lists and the discovery of poll lists refer to: Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Jan Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Rutgers Law Review 63:3 (January 2011): 1017-1035; Henry C. Shinn, “An Early New Jersey Poll List,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 44:1 (1920): 77-81; Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 30-32, fn 39.

Part 3

How Did Women Lose the Vote?: The Backlash 

For more on the political “backlash” against women in the Early Republic, refer to: Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). 

Image: Electoral Reform Enrolled Law, Trenton, New Jersey, November 16, 1807, Ink on Paper, New Jersey State Archives, Department of State

The Rise of Partisan Politics

For more on the rise of partisan politics in the Early Republic and in New Jersey and the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties, refer to: Morton Borden, Parties and Politics in the Early Republic 1789 – 1815 (Wiley Publishing, 1967); Joanne B. Freeman, Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (Yale University Press, 2001); Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books: New York, 2000); Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Matthew Mason, Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2006); Barbara J, Mitnick, Editor, New Jersey in the American Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Rivergate Books, 2005); Brian Phillips Murphy, Building the Empire State: Political Economy in the Early Republic (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015); Simon P. Newman, Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive Culture in the Early American Republic (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997); Jefferey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (University of Virginia Press, 2001); J.R. Pole, “Jeffersonian Democracy and the Federalist Dilemma in New Jersey, 1798–1812,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Association 74 (1956): 260–92; Daniel Peart, Era of Experimentation: American Political Practices in the Early Republic (University of Virginia Press, 2014); Carl A. Prince, New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1967); James Roger Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (Yale University Press, 1993); George Van Cleve, A Slaveholders' Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic (University of Chicago Press, 2010). Newspaper quote on Joseph Bloomfield cited from original newspaper, The Federalist Gazette, courtesy of Readex. Newspaper quote on Alexander Hamtilon cited from original newspaper, Centinel of Freedom, courtesy of Readex. 

Voter Intimidation

For more on the “backlash” against women’s political gains in the Early Republic, refer to: Susan Branson, These Fiery Frenchified Dames: Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). For more on township voting in New Jersey elections during the Early Federal period, refer to: J.R. Pole, “The Reform of Suffrage and Representation in New Jersey: 1774–1844,” PhD Dissertation (Princeton University, 1953). For more on rising accusations of voter fraud, refer to: Irwin N. Gertzog, “Female Suffrage in New Jersey, 1790-1807.” Women & Politics 11 (April 1990): 47-58; Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Jan Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Rutgers Law Review 63:3 (January 2011): 1017-1035; Neil McGoldrick and Margaret Crocco. Reclaiming Lost Ground: The Struggle for Woman Suffrage in New Jersey (Trenton: New Jersey Council for the Humanities, 1994): 2-5; Mary Philbrook, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey Prior to 1807,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 57 (July 1939): 88; J.R. Pole, “The Suffrage in New Jersey, 1770–1807,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Association 71 (1953): 39–68; Carl A. Prince, New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1967); Edward Raymond Turner, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey: 1790-1807,” Smith College Studies in History 1 (1916): 165-187; William A. Whitehead, “A Brief Statement of the Facts Connected with the Origin, Practice, and Prohibition of Female Suffrage in New Jersey,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 8 (1858): 102; Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash (2007). Quote from petition of voter fraud cited from original manuscript, courtesy of the New Jersey State Archives, Department of State. Quote on illegal voting practices cited from original newspaper, Centinel of Freedom, courtesy of Readex. For more on tavern culture and voting in taverns, refer to: Peter Thompson, Rum Punch and Revolution: Taverngoing & Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999). For more on the electoral college and electoral process in the Early Republic and New Jersey, refer to: Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books: New York, 2000); J.R. Pole, “The Reform of Suffrage and Representation in New Jersey: 1774–1844.,” PhD Dissertation (Princeton University, 1953).

Gradual Abolition of 1804 

For more on the 1804 Gradual Abolition Act and partisan influence on slavery and in New Jersey, refer to: James J. Gigantino II, The Ragged Road to Abolition: Slavery and Freedom in New Jersey, 1775-1865 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014); Russell Graham Hodges, Slavery and Freedom in the Rural North: African Americans in Monmouth County, New Jersey, 1665-1865 (Madison House, 1997); Russell Graham Hodges, Black New Jersey: 1664 to Present Day (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2018); Matthew Mason, Slavery and Politics in the Early American Republic (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2006); George. A. Van Cleve, Slaveholders' Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic (University of Chicago Press, 2010). For more on slavery and the experiences of enslaved men and women in the eighteenth century and in New Jersey, refer to: Catherine Adams and Elizabeth Peck, For the Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Marisa J. Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018); Leslie M. Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626-1863 (University of Chicago Press, 2003); Russell Graham Hodges and Alan Brown, eds., "Pretends to Be Free": Runaway Slave Advertisements from Colonial and Revolutionary New York and New Jersey (Fordham University Press, 2019); Russell Graham Hodges, Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613-1863 (Chapel Hill: UNC Press 1999); Jacqueline Jones, “The Mixed Legacy of the American Revolution for Black Women,” In Mary Beth Norton and Ruth M. Alexander, eds., Major Problems in Women’s History: Documents and Essays (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Co., 1996); Jennifer L. Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Marie Jenkins Schwartz, Ties That Bound: Founding First Ladies and Slaves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017); Kirsten Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil: Strategic Deceptions in Eighteenth-Century Antislavery,” Journal of American History, 97:2 (September 2010): 315-343; Carole Watterson Troxler, “Re-enslavement of Black Loyalists: Mary Postell in South Carolina, East Florida, and Nova Scotia,” Acadiensis XXXVII, no. 2 (Summer/Autumn 2008): 70-85; Betty Wood, Gender, Race and Rank in a Revolutionary Age: The Georgia Lowcountry, 1750-1820 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000); Betty Wood, “Southern Women of Color and the American Revolution,” In S. Jay Kleinberg, Eileen Boris, and Vicki L. Ruiz, eds. The Practice of U.S. Women’s History: Narratives, Intersections, and Dialogues (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2007): 67-82. 

 A Backlash Against Women

For more on the partisan press in the Early Republic refer to: Jefferey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (University of Virginia Press, 2001). For more on the “Petticoat Electors” and “Wollstoncraftians” in the press, refer to: Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 159-193; Jan Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807,” Rutgers Law Review 63:3 (January 2011): 1017-1035; Neil McGoldrick and Margaret Crocco. Reclaiming Lost Ground: The Struggle for Woman Suffrage in New Jersey (Trenton: New Jersey Council for the Humanities, 1994): 2-5; Mary Philbrook, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey Prior to 1807,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 57 (July 1939): 88; Edward Raymond Turner, “Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey: 1790-1807,” Smith College Studies in History 1 (1916): 165-187; Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). Quote on the “petticoat faction” cited from the original newspaper, Centinel of Freedom, courtesy of Readex. Quote on “Wollstonecraftian” women voters cited from original newspaper, The Bee, courtesy of Readex. For more on neoclassicalism and neoclassical fashion in the Early American Republic, refer to: Susan Branson, These Fiery Frenchified Dames: Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); Kate Haulman, The Politics of Fashion in Eighteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014); Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Alden O’Brien, An Agreeable Tyrant: Fashion After the Revolution (DAR Museum, 2016); Caroline Winterer, The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780-1910 (John Hopkins University Press, 2002). For more on Mary Wollstonecraft, refer to: Diane Jacobs, Her Own Woman: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft (Kensington Publishing Company, 2001).

Fears of Foreign Influence

For more on the French Revolution, refer to: David Andress, ed., The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2015); Gregory S. Brown, Cultures in Conflict: The French Revolution (Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press, 2003); Malcolm Crook, Elections in the French Revolution: An Apprenticeship in Democracy, 1789-1799 (Cambridge University Press, 1996); Marianne Elliot, Partners in Revolution: The United Irishmen and France (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982). For more on the Haitian Revolution, refer to: Alex Dupuy, Rethinking the Haitian Revolution: Slavery, Independence, and the Struggle for Recognition (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2019); David Patrick Geggus and Norman Fiering, Editors. The World of the Haitian Revolution (Indiana University Press, 2009). For more on the Irish Rebellion, refer to: Marianne Elliot, Partners in Revolution: The United Irishmen and France (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982); W.A. Maguire, ed., Up in Arms: The 1798 Rebellion in Ireland (Belfast, UK: Ulster Museum, 1998); Thomas Pakenham, The Year of Liberty: The Story of the Great Irish Rebellion of 1798 (London: Abacus, 2000); Cathal Póirtéir, ed., The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798 (Boulder, CO: Mercier Press, 1998). For more on the Alien and Sedition Acts, refer to: Terri Diane Halperin, The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: Testing the Constitution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2016); J.R. Pole, “Jeffersonian Democracy and the Federalist Dilemma in New Jersey, 1798–1812,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Association 74 (1956): 260–92; Carl A. Prince, New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1967). For more on women in the French Revolution and their influence in America, refer to: Lisa Beckstrand, Deviant Women of the French Revolution and the Rise of Feminism (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2009); Susan Branson, These Fiery Frenchified Dames: Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); Dominique Godineau, The Women of Paris and Their French Revolution (University of California Press, 1998); Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Lisa L. Moore, Transatlantic Feminisms in the Age of Revolutions (OUP USA, 2012); Sophie Mousset, Women's Rights and the French Revolution: A Biography of Olympe De Gouges (Taylor & Francis, 2017); Leslie W. Rabine and Sara E. Melzer, eds., Rebel Daughters: Women and the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 1992). 

1807: Closing the Electorate 

For more on the 1807 election statute in New Jersey refer to: Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (Basic Books: New York, 2000); J.R. Pole, “The Suffrage in New Jersey, 1770–1807,” Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Association 71 (1953): 39–68; Robert Forest Williams, The New Jersey State Constitution (OUP USA, 1990). Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 36-37. 

For more on party conflict and the 1806 election in Essex, refer to: Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776-1807.” Journal of the Early Republic 12:2 (Summer 1992): 186-190. 

Part 4

How Was the Vote Regained?: Redemption?

For more on the long history of the women’s suffrage movement, refer to: Ellen Carol Dubois, Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women's Movement in America, 1848-1869 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978); Ellen Carol Dubois, Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997); Ellen Carol DuBois, Suffrage: Women's Long Battle for the Vote (Simon & Schuster, 2020); Jo Freeman, A Room at a Time: How Women Entered Party Politics (New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2000); Julie A., Gallagher, Black Women and Politics in New York City (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2012); Susan Goodier and Karen Pastorello, Women Will Vote: Winning Suffrage in New York State (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2017); Martha S. Jones, Vanguard: How Black Women Broke Barriers, Won the Vote, and Insisted on Equality for All (New York: Basic Books, 2020); Brooke Kroeger, The Suffragents: How Women Used Men to Get the Vote (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2017); Kate Clarke Lemay, ed., Votes for Women: A Portrait of Persistence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019); Suzanne M. Marilley, Woman Suffrage and the Origins of Liberal Feminism in the United States, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); Sally McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women's Rights Movement (Oxford University Press, 2008); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Indiana University Press, 1998); Lisa Tetrault, The Myth of Seneca Falls: Memory and the Women's Suffrage Movement, 1848-1898 (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2014); Susan Ware, Why They Marched: Untold Stories of the Women Who Fought for the Right to Vote (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019); Tiffany K. Wayne, ed., Women's Suffrage: The Complete Guide to the Nineteenth Amendment (ABC: CLIO, 2020); Elaine Weiss, The Woman's Hour: The Great Fight to Win the Vote (New York: Penguin Publishing Group, 2018). 

Mobile Image: “Address of Elizabeth Cady Stanton before the Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections,”

New York Daily Graphic, New York, New York, January 16, 1878, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C, Reproduction Number LC-USZ62-60964.

An Ongoing Revolution for Women

For more on women’s activism, education, and reform, initiatives in the public sphere in the Early Republic and nineteenth century, refer to: Catherine Allgor, Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of Washington Help Build a City and a Government (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000); Harriet B. Applewhite and Darlene G. Levy, eds., Women and Politics in the Age of the Democratic Revolution (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); Dianne Ashton, Rebecca Gratz: Women and Judaism in Antebellum America (Wayne State University Press, 1997); Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920,” American Historical Review, 89:3 (June 1984), 620-647; Kabria Baumgartner, In Pursuit of Knowledge: Black Women and Educational Activism in Antebellum America (New York: NYU Press, 2019); Cathleen D. Cahill, Recasting the Vote: How Women of Color Transformed the Suffrage Movement (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2020); Andrew Cayton, Love in the Time of the Revolution: Transatlantic Literary Radicalism and Historical Change, 1793–1818 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Catherine Clinton, “Equally Their Due: The Education of the Planter Daughter in the Early Republic,” Journal of the Early Republic 2:1 (Spring 1982): 39-60; Amanda Cobb, Listening to Our Grandmothers' Stories: The Bloomfield Academy for Chickasaw Females, 1852-1949 (Lincoln University of Nebraska Press, 2002); Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: Woman’s Sphere in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977); Lori Ginzberg, Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the Nineteenth-Century United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Linda K. Kerber, No Constitutional Right to be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999); Jan Lewis, “The Republican Wife: Virtue and Seduction in the Early Republic,” William and Mary Quarterly 44 (October 1987): 689-721; Lucia McMahon, Mere Equals: The Paradox of Educated Women in the Early Republic (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012); Lisa L. Moore, Transatlantic Feminisms in the Age of Revolutions (OUP USA, 2012); Marion Rust, Prodigal Daughters: Susanna Rowson’s Early American Women (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2008); Sheila L. Skemp, First Lady of Letters: Judith Sargent Murray and the Struggle for Female Independence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Kristen Welch and Abraham Ruelas, The Role of Female Seminaries on the Road to Social Justice for Women (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015); Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994); Rosemarie Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). Sarah Louisa Forten quote cited in her poem “An Appeal to Women,” in Janet Gray, ed., She Wields a Pen: American Women Poets of the Nineteenth Century (University of Iowa Press, 1997). Priscilla Mason quote cited in The Rise and Progress of the Young-Ladies' Academy of Philadelphia (1794). Judith Sargent Murray quote cited in “On the Equality of the Sexes” (1790).  

Votes for Women: The Next Generation 

For more on women’s right to property under marriage and suffragists’ claims to “no taxation without representation”, refer to: Norma Basch, In the Eyes of the Law: Women, Marriage, and Property in Nineteenth-century New York (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983); Richard H. Chused, “Married Women’s Property Law: 1800-1850,” The Georgetown Law Journal 71 (1983): 1359-1425; Linda K. Kerber, No Constitutional Right to be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill & Wang, 1999); Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1986); Juliana Tutt, “‘No Taxation Without Representation’ in the American Woman Suffrage Movement,” Stanford Law Review 62:5 (May 2010): 1473-1512; Elizabeth Bowles Warbasse, The Changing Legal Rights of Married Women, 1800-1861 (Garland Publishing, 1987). Source, Acts of the Seventy-Sixth Legislature of the State of New Jersey (Somerville, 1852), 407, Courtesy of the Special Collections/University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries. For more on Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, refer to: Penny Coleman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: A Friendship That Changed the World (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2013); Sue Davis, The Political Thought of Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Women’s Rights and the American Political Traditions (New York: New York University Press, 2008); Lori Ginzberg, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American Life (New York: Hill & Wang, 2009). For more on Lucy Stone, refer to: Sally Gregory McMillen, Lucy Stone: An Unapologetic Life (Oxford University Press, 2016). For more on Getrude Bustill Mossell and Black women writers in the nineteenth century refer to: Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Hollis Robbins, eds, The Portable Nineteenth-century African American Women Writers (New York: Penguin Books, 2017); Beverly Guy-Sheftall, ed, Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought (New Press, 1995); Francille Rusan Wilson, Gertrude Emily Hicks Bustill Mossell: Her Heritage, Her Impact, and Her Legacy (Alexander Street Publishing, 2014); Nazera Sadiq Wright, Black Girlhood in the Nineteenth Century (University of Illinois Press, 2016). For more on women’s suffrage and the Fifteenth Amendment, refer to: Faye E. Dudden, Fighting Chance: The Struggle Over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); Laura E. Free, Suffrage Reconstructed: Gender, Race, and Voting Rights in the Civil War Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015); Lori Ginzberg, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American Life (New York: Hill & Wang, 2009). For more on Sojourner Truth, refer to: Nell Irvin Painter, Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996). Sojourner Truth quote cited in her Address to the First Annual Meeting of the American Equal Rights Association, 1867. Elizabeth Cady Stanton quote cited in Lori Ginzberg, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American Life (New York: Hill & Wang, 2009). Susan B. Anthony quote cited in response to Frederick Douglass at the American Equal Rights Association meeting, see: https://condor.depaul.edu/mwilson/divided/chptone.html. Frances Ellen Watkins Harper quote cited in her “We Are All Bound Up Together” address at the Eleventh National Women’s Rights Convention in New York City, 1866. 

Evoking the Memory of the Nation’s Revolutionary Women

For more on women suffragists and revolutionary iconography, refer to: Katherine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, Alice Paul and the American Suffrage Campaign (University of Illinois Press, 2007), 227, 234, 236; Barbara F. Berenson, Massachusetts in the Woman Suffrage Movement: Revolutionary Reformers (History Press, 2018); Carol Berkin, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence (New York: 2005); Robert J. Dinkin, Before Equal Suffrage: Women in Partisan Politics from Colonial Times to 1920 (Greenwood Press, 1995); David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom: A Visual History of America's Founding Ideas (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). For more on women at the 1876 centennial, refer to: Linda P. Gross and Theresa R. Snyder, Philadelphia's 1876 Centennial Exhibition (Arcadia Press, 2005). For more on Elizabeth Cady Stanton voting in Tenafly, refer to: Lori Ginzberg, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American Life (New York: Hill & Wang, 2009).

1920: The 19th Amendment

For more on the anti-suffrage movement, refer to: Anne Myra Benjamin, Women Against Equality: A History of the Anti Suffrage Movement In the United States from 1895 to 1920 (Lulu Publishing Services, 1991); Susan Goodier, No Votes for Women: The New York State Anti-Suffrage Movement (University of Illinois Press, 2013); Elna C. Green, Southern Strategies: Southern Women and the Woman Suffrage Question (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1997); Susan E. Marshall, Splintered Sisterhood: Gender and Class in the Campaign Against Woman Suffrage (University of Wisconsin Press, 1997).